Last year I received a request from the University of Guelph Institute for Environmental Research (GIER) to commission some natural science illustrations.
The institute had received a small grant to create unique communications/knowledge mobilization pieces that would help disseminate research results to the general public. Being an interdisciplinary institute, GIER's grant proposal included the hosting of five interdisciplinary teams, each composed of a researcher, an end user, and an artist.  Their objective was to bring together the natural sciences (their researchers), the social sciences (representatives of 'end user' organizations who know about how research results should be presented), and the arts (artists who bring more creativity to the conversation).  Each team would work together in creating their own unique product, based on their communication/knowledge mobilization needs, 
GIER's Knowledge Mobilization Project kicked off on Feb 10, 2021 and ran for 6.5 weeks.

GIER's vision is to "harness the extraordinary existing environmental research capacity across all seven colleges of the University, as well as build a new robust collaborative platform beyond campus. In our vision, we break down barriers among disciplinary silos and bring the arts, the sciences, the humanities, and the engineering together to tackle complex environmental problems." - GIER website

This "bee pollination" colouring book represents the interdisciplinary collaboration between Janean Sharkey (U of G's bee pollination researcher), Jenna Quinn (representative of 'end-user' rare Charitable Research Reserve), and Suzanne Matheson (Natural Science Artist/Illustrator).  Our team was one of the five brought together by GIER.  

These illustrations have been designed to accommodate fun, informative text
provided by the end-user, rare Charitable Research Reserve. 

Here you will discover the range of my visual artistry.  Among these pages you will find art that communicates the complexity and interwoven natural history of Life in her various forms.  Whether simply curious or viewing with intent to purchase or commission work(s), I invite you all to explore these colourful pages!

​As a Visual Science Communicator, I carefully research the natural history of my subjects while studying the nuances of their shapes, anatomy, and finer details.  This lends accuracy to my representation of their form and, in my final renderings, infuses a sense of their story.

The galleries below give you direct connections to the three stores within my Shop.  Feel free to use the image links to become acquainted with my products.

​This is my blog.  Here you will be updated on the services I offer as well as my upcoming events.  Check out the blog categories to find information about educational opportunities and some of my particular areas of interest.  Finally, all research related to the natural science subjects available in my Digital Stock Illustrations Shop are stored here.  For easy reference to the illustrations and their respective research, please visit my Index of Illustrated Species.  When relevant, blog entries are cross-referenced with one another.

​Just the beginning of what will become a more comprehensive resource library, the FAQ page is an ‘all you need to know’ when seeking to hire a scientific illustrator for your next project.  It offers points you will need to consider when thinking about incorporating artwork into your research or other project, as well as the ins & outs of copyright and licensing with regard to the use of my artwork.

Phylum:  Arthropoda     Class:  Insecta     Order:  Lepidoptera     Family:  Nymphalidae

Species Status, the following listed Monarch as “Special Concern”:  federal Species at Risk Act in 2003; Ontario’s Endangered Species Act, 2007; New Brunswick’s Species at Risk Act, 2012; COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada), 2010

Family, Nymphalidae:
Nymphalidae, commonly known as the Brush-footed Butterfly family, is highly visible and lends well to study, both in the field and in the lab.  For this reason, members are often used as model systems in understanding complexities of Earth life.  

Among the 6000 described species are the Monarch, the Painted Lady, the buckeye, the fritillaries, checkerspots and the electric blue morphos.  Not all taxonomists agree on Nymphalidae family classification.  Due to diversity in form and lifestyle some argue for the family being split up into as many as 9 different families.  What does hold Nymphalidae together as a family is the single characteristic of all species having tricarinate (having 3 ridged keels) ridges on the antennae of adult butterflies.

Generally, Nymphalidae are medium to large-sized butterflies, with most species having a reduced  pair of forelegs, and on some this pair has a brush-like set of hairs.  Their vernacular names, “Brush-footed” and “Four-footed” respectively come from the brush-like feature adapted for cleaning their antennae, and their reputation for standing on only four legs, with the two forelegs curled up.  Many species hold their wings flat when resting.  The dorsal (upper) surface of most species are quite colourful, while the ventral (under) surface is quite dull, having a camouflaging effect. 

Other idiosyncrasies of this family include flight behaviour that is more like flapping and gliding than fluttering, and feeding on juices of rotten plants, fruit and animals.

Danaus plexippus is a member of the subfamily Danainae (milkweed butterflies).  Species in this subfamily lay their eggs on the various milkweed plants that their larvae then feed on. For this reason, besides “Monarch”, another common name is Milkweed butterfly.

Genus, Danaus:
The twelve Danaus species are found worldwide, including Australia, Indonesia, Asia, Africa, South America, and North America.  North American species include the two from subfamily Danainae, D. plexippus (Monarch) and D. gilippus (Queen), as well as D. eresimus (Soldier). This genus appears to be named for its display of regal colours.  According to Greek mythology, Danaus, who ruled in Libya, was the son of Belus, king of Egypt.  Myth has it that his twin brother, Aegyptus, drove him out of Egypt, into Argos of Greece.   

Following the regal theme, due to the bright orange colour of D. plexippus, it is believed that the common name, “Monarch,” is in honour of King William III of England, whose secondary title was, “Prince of Orange.”

Description/Features:
As adults, D. plexippus are recognized by wings with an upper tawny orange surface, with veins traced in black and black borders dotted white.  These markings serve as a warning to predators of poison.  The underside is similar, but the tips of all wings are yellow brown and the white spots are larger.  Their wingspan ranges from 8.9 to 10.2 cm (3.5 - 4.0 in).  Males are distinguished from females by being slightly larger, with narrower vein tracing and a small, oblong “sex” spot on each hind wing.  Pheromones are dispersed from a similar spot on some other species, but this is not known to be the case with Monarchs.  

Like all creatures of the class, Insecta, Monarchs have 3 pairs of 3 legs; however, they only use their middle and hind leg pairs.  The forelegs are vestigial and held against the body.  From head to abdomen tip they are black with white spots.

A species often confused with the Monarch is Limenitis archippus (Viceroy butterfly).  Together, these two species are considered Müllerian mimics, that is, well-defended, foul-tasting species that have evolved to mimic one another against their shared predators. 

Range:
Native to North and South America, this migratory species has spread to other warm places where their host plants, various milkweed species, grow.  While they are now populating Hawaii, Portugal, Spain and Oceania islands, unfortunately they are no longer to be found in South America.  

There are two major populations of Monarchs, subspecies D. plexippus plexippus, in North America.  From southern Canada and the United States, the western population migrates south to California, while the eastern population, of up to 500,000 individuals, travels as much as 3000 km to mountainous forests in central Mexico.

Curiously, migration affects the appearance of the Monarch.  Wings size and shape differ between those who don’t migrate and those who do, and of the ones who do, early migrants appear redder and more elongated than those who migrate later.  In terms of North American migrants, Monarchs in the east have larger and more angular forewings than those in the west.

Host Plant(s):
The Monarchs’ host plants, of the genus Asclepias or milkweeds, instigate their migration.  The leaves of milkweed plants offer the required surface for egg laying as well as necessary food nutrients for larvae.  Milkweeds contain toxins that Monarch larvae are adapted to handle.  These toxins, incorporated into their bodies, provide protection, as make the larvae and metamorphized butterflies distasteful to many predators.

Habitat:
The reproductive habitat of this migratory butterfly is that of the milkweed.  Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), the most common species in eastern NA, grows in old fields and roadsides.  Swamp milkweed (A. incarnata) grows in wet areas, including marshes, streambanks and moist meadows.  Within the southern part of Monarch’s range, Green or Spider milkweed (A. viridis) grows in rocky wooded openings, prairies, glades, and roadsides, while Whorled milkweed (A. verticillata) grows in fields, pastures, dry prairies, dry open woods, glades and roadsides.

Behaviour:
Native to North America, D. plexippus plexippus (Monarch) was introduced to Australia in the 1870s, and there this species gained the name, “Wanderer Butterfly”, for its migratory habit. 

D. plexippus plexippus is the Monarch subspecies that migrates from the northern part of their range each autumn (eastern/northeastern NA or western/northwestern NA) and from the southern part of their range each spring (the mountainous forest of central Mexico or the west coast of California, respective).  Other subspecies make minor migrations or not at all.

Most North American individuals do not migrate, but rather live for 4-5 weeks, during which time they mate and lay eggs.  For the generation that emerges from late August and into September, this reproductive urge is replaced by the impetus to migrate.  Before the great flight, their energy goes into storing the fat that will serve to fuel their late-August to mid-October journey and throughout their subsequent southern stay.  Slow and sailing, Monarch flight speed has been estimated at around 9 km/h (5.5 mph).  

Monarchs tend to move on cold fronts, and when rain, wind or unfavourable temperatures prevent them from crossing Lake Erie, they will use the southernmost tip of Canada, the site of Point Pelee National Park, Ontario, as their resting point.  Thousands of these beautiful butterflies can be seen during their brief (a few days) Autumn stay.  For best viewing, use binoculars in the early morning or before sunset.  Look into sheltered areas near the treetops.  You may see them resting with open wings or, with wings together, camouflaged as dead leaves.

The migrating butterflies live for more than 6 months.  They enter into a state of ‘active’ diapause that suppresses reproduction and initiates the storing of fats (lipids, proteins and carbohydrates).  This store carries them through migration and their roost for the duration of the North American winter (total, approx 5 months).  The cool, mountainous forest slows their metabolism so that they do not need to eat very much while roosting; however, they do require replenishment of water, so on warm days they will fly out in the millions to drink.  When the weather becomes amiable for milkweed growth (mid-March), these same butterflies come out of diapause and lay eggs.  The migratory trip northward begins with these children.  Along the journey, females continue to lay eggs for subsequent generations to take over the flight, so that an annual cycle involves four generations in all!

Life Cycle:
Mating behaviour may be observed as adult butterflies move about their milkweed flower nectary.  Look for  males perching on exposed sunny spots.  When a butterfly passes by he will fly out in hopes of a female Monarch.  If he’s in luck, he will fly behind her and bump into the tip of her abdomen.  Together, they will engage in a speedy, erratic chase.  The male will then grab her from above and hold his wings straight out, while the female flutters and glides to the ground.  Hidden among weeds, the male attaches his abdomen to hers and then carries her off to dense vegetation.  There they remain attached from 2-14 hours, the time it takes for a packet of sperm to be transferred.  

D. plexippus undergoes complete metamorphosis - egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages. The fertile adult female butterfly will lay hundreds of eggs in one day, but only one at a time.  An egg is about the size of a pinhead, off-white to yellow, with longitudinal ridges running from tip to base.  They can often be found on the bottom of a milkweed leaf near the top of the plant.  About 4 days later the eggs hatch into larvae.  Over the following 10 days the larvae, black-white-yellow caterpillars, feed on milkweed leaves as they proceed through 4 molts (5 instars).  Pupae attached under a milkweed leaf or other solid object and remain in this state for about 12 days.  The emergent butterflies will continue to mate and lay eggs, with as many as 3-4 broods.  Born in (the North American) late-summer, the last brood enters an ‘active diapause’ that ceases reproduction in favour of the accumulation of fat storage, and migrates south to overwinter there.

Conservation:
For Monarchs, it's all about milkweed, milkweed, milkweed ... warm temperatures, cool forests, and quality water.  For the NA eastern population, protection of milkweed habitats throughout their migratory range and summer breeding grounds, along with the preservation of their overwintering site, mountainous oyamel forests of Mexico and its watershed, are paramount to the survival of our beloved relation, Danaus plexippus plexippus, Monarch butterfly.  

What is true of the Nymphalidae family as a whole is certainly true of Monarch.  This highly visible species lends well to study and is an excellent model system not only for understanding complexities of Earth life, but also for conserving life well beyond that of one species.  Conservation of Monarch habitats in North America and Mexico is conservation of all species who live within these habitats.  Much love and gratitude extending to this beautifully fascinating creature!

The catalogue of images is steadily growing, so please check in frequently. 
If you're not finding the perfect illustration(s) for your project I will be happy to accommodate you.  To get started, check out my FAQ page.

Bibliography:

Balmer, Elizabeth.  A Pocket Guide to Butterflies & Moths.  Bath, UK:  Parragon Books Ltd, 2007.

Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2016. Management Plan for the Monarch (Danaus plexippus)
     in Canada. Species at Risk Act Management Plan Series. Environment and Climate Change Canada,
     Ottawa. iv + 45 pp.

Foster, Steven & James A. Duke. Peterson Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and
     Central North America.  New York, New York:  Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2014. 

Kricher, John & Gordon Morrison.  Peterson Field Guides  Eastern Forests.  New York New York: 
     Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988.

Macnaughton, Alan.  ”Monarch Rescue”:  A Good Idea?  Toronto, Ontario:  Toronto Entomologists’
     Association, 2019.

Stokes, Donald.  A Guide to Observing Insect Lives.  Toronto, Ontario:  Little, Brown and Company, 1983.

Wilcox, Alana & Flockhart, Tyler & Newman, Amy & Norris, Ryan. (2019). Evaluating the strength of
     evidence for declines in eastern migratory North American monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus).
     Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7. 10.3389/fevo.2019.00099. 

On-line Resources:

  “Butterfly Anatomy.”  Eeles, Peter.  Dispar  The Online Journal of Lepidoptera, 2015.  Web.  Accessed 30 Mar 2020.  https://www.dispar.org/reference.php?id=6.

  “Danaus.”  Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.  Updated 24 July 2020.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaus#:~:text=In%20Greek%20mythology%2C%20Danaus%20(%2F,Mycenaean%20cities%20of%20the%20Peloponnesus.

  “Danaus (Butterfly).”  Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.  Updated 21 July 2020.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaus_(butterfly).

  “Friday Fun Fact - Monarch butterflies in Australia.”  Australian Butterfly Sanctuary.  01 Feb 2016.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://australianbutterflies.com/monarch-butterflies-in-australia/#:~:text=They%20originated%20in%20North%20America,hibernate%20through%20the%20winter%20months..

  “Genus Danaus.”  Cotinis, 2004.  Updated 22 June 2013.  BugGuide, Iowa State University, Department of Entomology, 2020.  Web.  Accessed 30 July 2020.  https://bugguide.net/node/view/352#:~:text=gilippus%3B%20Soldier%2C%20D.,12%20species%20worldwide..

  “Monarch Butterflies.”  Journey North.  Arboretum University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997-2019.  Web.  Accessed on 01 Aug 2020.  https://journeynorth.org/tm/monarch/sl/3/index.html.

  “Egg.”  Monarch Joint Venture, 2020.  Web.  Accessed 01 Aug 2020.  https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch-biology/life-cycle/egg#:~:text=For%20monarchs%2C%20that's%20milkweed!,the%20tip%20to%20the%20base..

  “Monarch butterflies - Point Pelee National Park.”  Parks Canada.  Government of Canada.  Updated 03 Mar 2020.  Web.  Accessed 30 July 2020.    https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/on/pelee/nature/faune-wildlife/monarque-monarch.

  “Monarch butterfly.”  National Geographic Society.  Web.  Accessed 30 July 2020.  https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/m/monarch-butterfly/.

  “Monarch butterfly.”  Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.  Updated 29 July 2020.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_butterfly.

  “Monarch butterfly migration.”  Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.  Updated 20 July 2020.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration​.

  “Natural History  Monarch Butterfly } Danaus plexippus plexippus.”  Center for Biological Diversity.  Web.  Accessed 30 July 2020.  https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/monarch_butterfly/natural_history.html.

  “Nymphalidae.”  Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.  Updated 13 July 2020.  Web.  Accessed on 30 July 2020.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphalidae.

  Wahlberg, Niklas and Andrew V. Z. Brower. 2009. Nymphalidae Rafinesque 1815. Brush-footed Butterflies. Version 15 September 2009 (under construction). http://tolweb.org/Nymphalidae/12172/2009.09.15 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/.

  “Wanderer butterfly - ​Danaus plexippus plexippus.”  Brisbane Insects and Spiders.  Updated 01 Jan 2011.  Web.  Accessed 30 July 2020.  https://www.brisbaneinsects.com/brisbane_nymphs/wanderer.htm.

Phylum:  Chordata     Class:  Mammalia     Order:  Rodentia     Family:  Sciuridae

Species Status in Ontario:  Least Concern

Family, Sciuridae:
The term, rodent, comes from the Latin rodere, which means “to gnaw”.  All animals in the order Rodentia are mammals that gnaw.  They are diagnosed by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in both the upper and the lower jaw.  Due to an extra pair of incisors, rabbits are not considered rodents.  

Most rodents are herbivores.  While the herbivore crania (housing smaller temporalis muscles than that of carnivores and omnivores) comes in two basic cranial shapes, smooth-rounded and smooth-flat, rodents are exceptions.  Their skulls can be round and smooth or slightly peaked.

Family Sciuridae includes small to medium-sized rodents.  The list includes prairie dogs, groundhogs and other marmots, chipmunks, flying squirrels, ground squirrels and tree squirrels.  Eastern Grey (Gray) Squirrels are considered tree squirrels, not because of their physiology, but rather due to their arboreal habitat.  They nest in trees and most of their life-sustaining activities rely on trees. Though flying squirrels make their home in trees, their physiology sets them apart.

Genus, Sciurus:
Squirrel fossil records date back 56 - 33.9 million years, to the Eocene epoch, the “dawn” of modern fauna.  They are closely related to mountain beaver and dormice and are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa.  

“Squirrel” is an etymological descendant of the Latin word “sciurus”.  This was a word borrowed from Ancient Greek, “skiouros”, meaning shadow-tailed, and refers to the bushy tail of many Sciurus members.

When referring to a group of squirrels, you might say “a dray of squirrels” or “a scurry of squirrels”.

Description/Morphology:
This omnivorous mammal is a medium-sized rodent, 8-10 inches long, and a bushy tail of similar length.  Fur on the back is grey and on the belly, white.  In more northern areas, including Southern Ontario, there are black grey squirrels.  These are melanistic, that is, individuals with a greater concentration of the dark-coloured pigment, melanin, in their fur.  
Front foot:  4 sharp-nailed toes for climbing, 3 palm pads, 2 heel pads, and a vestigial thumb located on the inside near the heel pad.  In soft substrate, the vestigial thumb will show up in the track.
Hind foot:  5 toes with nails, 4 palm pads, 2 heel pads with a surrounding area lacking hair.  Sometimes, as is commonly the case with Eastern Cottontail Rabbits, S. carolinensis’ hind feet will make elongated tracks.  Usually, the hind tracks end with the 4 palm pads.  The track pattern is typically trapezoidal, with two hind tracks ahead and wider apart than the two closely spaced front tracks.

Range:
Generally, S. carolinensis can be found from the southern portion of Manitoba down into Texas and east to the Atlantic coast.  I've heard that Southern Ontario has the greatest population of melanistic grey squirrels. 

​Habitat:
S. carolinensis has adapted quite well to urban environments, though this species prefers living in deciduous, hardwood forests where acorns, hickory nuts and beechnuts are plentiful.  In Southern Ontario, the frequent discovery of gnawing signs on discarded Black Walnut shells, particular to Eastern Grey Squirrel, reveals that they are keen for these large nuts as well.  In warm seasons, when nuts are unavailable, they will also take advantage of the following habitat food offerings:  expanding buds of many trees, ripened seeds of elm, maple and basswood, caterpillars and cocoons, beetles and ants, and on occasion, bird’s eggs and nestlings.  They enjoy the sweet sap that flows in the spring from a maple or birch injury. ​​​

In winter, in the northern parts of their range, they shelter in tree holes and tree crevices, insulated with leaves and other soft materials.  Otherwise, they will nest in “outdoor” spherical leaf nests, 12” to 19” in diameter.  These loose, leafy nests are built high up in mature deciduous trees, with the main entrance near the tree’s trunk.  To discover where a squirrel may be nesting, follow one who is carrying leaves, twigs and/or shredded bark.

Behaviour:
I don’t think of squirrels as migratory, so this story really piqued my curiosity:  Legend has it that in the early 1800’s there was an intense grey squirrel migration, with up to a billion animals moving into new territory, swaths a mile wide.  When encountering a river, to make their passage across, the squirrels would float on pieces of bark and hoist their tails up for sails!  Today, surplus and scarcity of acorns in any given year may instigate mass migrations of Eastern Grey Squirrel. 

S. carolinensis is diurnal, with their day starting at sunrise and ending just a little after sunset.  The home range of each individual is fixed.  Within this range he or she acquires food, gains protection and locates a place to den.  Ideally, this range would be several wooded acres, more for males, less for females.  Not territorial creatures, these home ranges overlap significantly.  Defense is reserved for females during breeding season.  

The social group, consisting of all squirrels with overlapping ranges, has a hierarchy of dominance based on age and sex, with older males at the top.  With this hierarchy very little aggression occurs.  If you witness aggression, it could be a young squirrel attempting to establish a home range near its birthplace and within that of an older squirrel.  In this case, the local hierarchy is being redefined.

Aggression for dominant squirrels takes the form of tooth chattering, sometimes audible, and forward and back tail waving.  General alarm is also displayed as tail waving.  On the ground, dominant squirrels will also jump towards, run at or chase others, often resulting in the two, classically, spiraling up a tree.

Squirrels have highways in the trees, efficient routes that they use regularly.  When they pause, sniff and rub the sides of their face on a limb, they may be leaving scent marks to keep track of one another.

Life Cycle:
Mating/breeding occurs from December to February and again from June to July.  The mating ritual begins with a pre-chase, the male following the female (who is giving off a scent) at a comfortable pace.  The male will stop and sniff as he follows.  Sometimes he gets close enough to sniff her directly.  When the female is in full estrus the early morning mating chase begins.  As many as ten males will chase a single female, all repeatedly calling “chuck”, among the trees.  Females only mate on their home range, but males will travel out of their range at the sound of her chucks!  There are occasional outbursts of aggression from both the female and among the males.  One can determine who is who by the social hierarchy.  In this case, the estrous female is in lead, followed by the older, most dominant males, with the younger males bringing up the rear.

Young are born in a tree den that is aggressively defended by the mother from all other squirrels, including the father.  Gestation is 45 days, with an average of 3 young per litter.  The infants are born hairless, with eyes and ears closed.  As mammals, they gain their nourishment from mother’s milk.  Four to five weeks after birth they make short trips out of the den, fully furred, with eyes and ears open.  Weaning occurs at 8-9 weeks old and they are on their own when they disperse from their mother’s home range around 4 months of age.

Ecology:
One particularly heavy, cold winter I discovered many black-stained holes in stark-white snow under a large walnut tree.  The holes did not extend into underground tunnels, but were only up to a foot deep and the size of a grey squirrel’s circumference.  This is consistent with what I now read, that these squirrels do not store their food in large underground caches.  Instead, they dig a shallow hole in the forest floor where they place and cover only one food item.  They will also use tree cavities to store somewhat larger caches.

Apparently, Grey Squirrels are very adept at relocating their buried nuts.  This may be due to scent marking the nut at the time of burial - pushing the nut down into the dug hole with their nose before covering it over with earth.  The low percentage of “lost” nuts will germinate to become -- seedlings … then saplings … join the understory … and finally reach the canopy as mature trees -- a significant contribution to forest regeneration.

To protect their own hardwood community from an over-abundance of hungry squirrels, nut trees have evolved a sporadic crop pattern.  Most years are lean, then once every 2-7 years all the trees throughout their range suddenly produce an abundance, referred to as a bumper or “mast year” crop.  The lean years establish a low population of squirrels that then cannot make use of the abundance offered during the following mast year.  I’ve been wondering what signals mast crops?  Could it be the specific chemical levels injected into the soil by means of squirrel urine?

Threats:
Squirrels are often roadkill victims, especially the young ones in search of a home range.
​  
When settlers first arrived on Turtle Island Grey Squirrel was so numerous as to be considered a significant threat to their agricultural crops.  Some states declared a bounty on them, and this, along with the continuous and universal deforestation, caused such a drop in this species’ population there arose concern that Sciurus carolinensis would become extinct!  With grey squirrel adaptation to urban environments, and with a decrease in farming, resulting in old field succession towards forest recovery, Eastern Grey squirrel has made a successful comeback.

The catalogue of images is steadily growing, so please check in frequently. 
If you're not finding the perfect illustration(s) for your project I will be happy to accommodate you.  To get started, check out my FAQ page.

Phylum:  Chordata     Class:  Aves     Order:  Passeriformes     Family:  Passerellidae

Species Status in Canada: “Ipswich” Savannah Sparrow subspecies  Passerculus sandwichensis princeps, on SARO “Special Concern” list since 2003 
and COSEWIC “Special Concern” list since 2009

Family, Passerellidae:
The Passerellidae family, American or New World sparrows, are a large family of brown or gray, seed-eating passerine birds.  The head patterns of many species are distinctive.  Their conical, finch-like bills visibly set them apart from the Passeridae, Old World sparrows.  New World sparrows are similar in appearance and habit to finches, family Fringillidae, classified by some authorities as Emberizidae, Old World buntings.  In the past, this led to Passerellidae sometimes being classified as such.  In 2017, the American Ornithological Society split Passerellidae from Emberizidae.

Genus, Passerculus:
Savannah Sparrow was once considered to be the only member of genus, Passerculus; however, recent studies by Birdlife International have established that 5 more species of New World sparrows belong to this category:  Baird’s, Belding’s, Henslow’s, Large-billed, and San Benito.

Description/Features:
Savannah is a medium-sized sparrow, between 11-17 cm long, with a wingspan from 18-25 cm.  Females may be slightly smaller than males and this is the only distinction between the sexes.  The body appears plump for the head, often appearing as having a small peak due to flared crown feathers.  This slight crest has a whitish stripe running through it.  Identification of this species from other similar sparrows is the yellowish front eyebrow.  The lores, the region between eye & bill may also be tinged yellow.  Apart from the “Large-billed” variety, this species is considered to have a small bill for a sparrow.

Moving along from the head, streaks on the body are neat and crisp, and wings come to a point.  Savannah’s belly is white, with undertail coverts clearly defined.  Beyond this is a short, notched tail.  Compared with Song Sparrow, Savannah has a shorter, less round tail and pinker legs.

There are a number of subtle variations, geographically based, once thought of as separate species.  Mainly, the grayish typical variety migrates to and from Southern Ontario. 

Range:
As a species, P. sandwichensis is common and widespread throughout the Americas.  Breeding occurs in the northern half of the United States and all of Canada except the most northerly islands.  
Note:  “Special concern” variety, Ipswich Sparrow, nests almost exclusively on Sable Island, situated near the edge of the Continental Shelf in the Atlantic Ocean, 290 km off the coast of Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

Habitat:
This sparrow loves grassy habitats.  In Southern Ontario, they may be found in old fields, open meadows, pastures, marsh edges, and in particular, alfalfa fields.  In summer, further north they favour tundras.  Other habitats include salt marshes, prairies, dunes, shores and weedy vacant lots.   

Foraging:
Their favoured food, especially in winter are seeds, mainly of grasses and weeds.  In summer they add insects to their diet.  Except during nesting season, Savannah’s forage in small, loose flocks.  They have a number of foraging habits.  In summer, you may see them making short flights to catch insects on the wing.  Seed foraging involves walking or running on the ground, with occasional scratches in soil & leaf-litter.  They also forage in shrubs and low trees.

Behaviour:
Not a highly secretive bird, Savannah will perch on weeds or fence wires.  It is not uncommon to find them roosting in small compact groups, either in short grass or on the ground.  If disturbed, they will fly up into bushes to perch.

Migration/Mating:
These songbirds prefer migrating in small flocks at night.  They have a very strong tendency to return each year to the area where they hatched.  This is referred to as “natal philopatry”.  This tendency makes them a highly suitable candidate for research projects that involve tracking study systems.

While the species is mainly monogamous, polygamy has been observed.  Like so many birds, the males sing to defend nesting territory and attract a mate.  More distinctive when interacting with a rival or a mate is the male’s slow flutter over grass, with tail raised and feet dangling.  During nesting season, females have a number of distraction displays:  a low flight with shallow wingbeats, feigned injury with wings and tail spread, and a mouse-like run along the ground.

Life Cycle:
Savannah sparrows have 1-2 broods per year.  The nest is hidden in grass at the end of a grassy tunnel.  Typically, they lay 4 eggs - whitish, pale tan or greenish, with heavy brown markings concentrated at the large end.  In the northern part of their range they tend to have broods of up to 6.  After an 8-12 day incubation by the female, altricial and downy hatchlings populate the nest.  Both parents feed the nestlings, who leave 8-11 days after hatching.  Flight occurs 8-14 days after fledging.

Threats:
In Ontario, the main threat to P. sandwichensis is habitat loss and modern agricultural practices.  Suitable habitat is being reduced by small farms giving way to large monocultures, along with loss of farmland, and other open areas, to development.  Savannah sparrows are less likely to use the resulting fragmentation - landscape patches - for nesting, as these small areas make them vulnerable to predators. The early and frequent mowing of developed open areas can destroy nests, eggs, and young.

Management:
Open areas not yet given over to development can be managed so as to maintain the Savannah sparrow’s grassland habitat.  Such management includes the suppression of succession - the evolution of the structure of a biological community - by means of annual mowing, controlled burns, or light grazing.  Such techniques, used periodically and only outside of the nesting season, remove woody growth so that the herbaceous community of plants can thrive.  Restoration can be enhanced by mixed planting of tall and short grasses and forbs.  Beyond Ontario, wintering sparrows will benefit by the protection of vegetated coastal dunes.

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Class:  Magnoliopsida   Subclass:  Rosidae    Order:  Rhamnales    Family:  Rhamnaceae
​
Host Plant for Endangered Species, Erynnis martialis  Mottled Duskywing butterfly

Buckthorn Family, Rhamnaceae:
Worldwide, there are 58 genera and 900 species in the Buckthorn family.  Members are dicotyledon shrubs or small trees, sometimes with thorns, with simple leaves that are usually serrated.  Their arrangement may be alternate or opposite.  Flower clusters give the impression of foamy, white, greenish or bluish sprays.  With respect to sepals, petals, and stamen, the flowers present in 4-5 parts.  They are usually bisexual.  Stamens are opposite to the petals and alternate with the sepals.  The usual 3 styles indicate 3 partition ovary walls, forming 3 chambers.  The yield is in the form of capsules or berries visibly divided into three parts.

Genus, Ceanothus:
Members of genus, Ceanothus, include buckbrush, ceanothus and red root.  In Thomas J. Elpel’s Botany in a Day, C. americanus (New Jersey Tea) is indicated as having many utilitarian and medicinal uses.  He describes it as beneficial to “healthy people under stress”, but not a heroic herb for treating the sick.

Alternate Names: 
Jersey tea ceanothus, red root (red-root, redroot), mountain sweet (mountain-sweet; mountainsweet), and wild snowball.

Description/Features:
This shrubby perennial stands 30.5 - 92 cm (1-3 ft) high.  The stems are herbaceous, extending up from a woody, gnarled rootstock.  These die back to near soil level each year.  The woody portion reaches deep into the ground via a thick root system that gets quite large in the wild.  Extending from this are fibrous hairs that grow close to the earth’s surface.  All of these features add up to a highly drought-resistant and fire-tolerant species.  Also worthy of note, as a plant that fixes nitrogen due to symbiosis with bacteria, it adds health to the soil. 

The stems are covered in both short curly and long straight hairs.  Petioles (leaf stalks) and the underside of leaves are pubescent (covered in soft hairs).

This plant has an alternate leaf arrangement.  The leaves are petiolate (having a leaf stalk) and ovate to lanceolate (egg-shaped to lance-shaped), with serrate (saw-toothed) margins.  The margin “teeth” are each tipped with a gland (an organ producing a secretion) that appears as a black or red dot.  Highly useful for identification are the two prominent veins extending from the base of the leaf, arch along the midrib and end mid-leaf at its margin.

Range:
New Jersey tea is native to Eastern North America and, in Canada, is found in Ontario and Quebec.

Habitat:
This plant, host to Erynnis martialis (Mottled Duskywing) butterfly prefers a dry habitat with sparse vegetation.  In Ontario, this may be open barrens, sandy patches in woodlands, the rare ecosystems of Ontario - oak woodlands, pin woodlands, tallgrass prairies, and alvars.  Alvars are limestone areas with shallow dry soil (clay or sandy), having sparse vegetation of early successional grass, shrub and wildflower species.  More common places it may grow are roadsides, hydro corridors, river banks, and shady hillsides.  It is not tolerant of closed canopies.  C. americanus is an Ontario tallgrass prairie indicator species.
Note:  Karner blue, frosted elfin and eastern Persium duskywings depend upon similar habitats as Mottled Duskywing, but are mostly gone from Ontario and Canada at large.

Similar Plant:
Also of the Buckthorn Family and native to Eastern North America is Ceanothus herbaceus  Prairie Redroot.  It is quite similar in appearance to C. americanus, but presents smaller, more narrowly elliptic leaves.  Prairie Redroot is quite rare in southern Ontario.

Reproduction:
Flowers grow in cylindrical clusters known as “thyrse”, a mixed inflorescence in which the main axis is indeterminate (outer or lower flowers open first while the stem continues to grow) and the secondary and ultimate axes are determinate (terminal flowers open first to prevent further growth of the stem or branch).  They are both axillary (spring from the axil, the angle formed by the upper side of a leaf and the stem) and terminal (spring from the apex or tip of the plant). 

Each individual flower is a white, fragrant, cup-like floral tube with 5 hooded petals, each clasping an anther when in bud.

Each fruit of C. americanus is a 3-lobed capsule-like “dehiscent drupe”.  This is a fleshy fruit containing seeds enclosed in a stony covering that, when mature, opens naturally in such a way so as to explosively eject the seeds.

Ecology/Associations:
In Ontario, Mottled Duskywing (Erynnis martialis) butterfly relies exclusively on C. americanus (New Jersey Tea) for all of its life cycle needs, including oviposition (egg laying), larval sheltering and feeding, and adult nectaring and basking.  White-tailed Deer and rabbits eat the in-season twigs.  Wild Turkey and Bobwhite Quail, both ground-foraging birds, consume the seeds.
​
Uses:
C. americanus is commonly called Red Root or Red Shank by those who use it as a medicinal plant.  The red roots and root bark was/is used by Indigenous peoples to treat, among other things, upper respiratory tract infection.  Modern herbalists use the root bark to treat problems of the lymph system.  Making dye is one utilitarian use for root and flower extracts.  The more recent common name, New Jersey Tea, comes from human use during the Revolutionary War.  Though it does not contain caffeine, it was used as a substitute for imported tea after the Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773. 

Threats:
The main and most direct threat to C. americanus is destruction of its habitat, including habitat fragmentation, due to various forms of human development.  These include changes by design, such as the planting of jack pine; pesticide use, including spraying for gypsy moth control; flooding; and, introduction of invasive species, such as Dog Strangling Vine.  

Less significant, yet still threatening, are natural habitat changes resulting from natural succession, canopy closure and deer browsing. 

Disturbance Management:
To the contrary, fire, both natural and controlled burns, serve to maintain suitable habitat conditions.  With such brilliant adaptations for surviving naturally-occurring fires - deep, burly root system and yearly die-off of above-ground stems - the burning off of woody plants clears the way and opens the canopy for fire-tolerant, drought-resistant New Jersey Tea.

Note, with reference to the threats and management above:  All of these threats are real and present dangers to Mottled Duskywing, the butterfly species that depends entirely on this plant for its survival.  While fire can cause direct mortality to individual butterflies, timely disturbances of this nature maintain suitable habitat conditions for future generations.  

A Final Note:  E. martialis (Mottled Duskywing) was once plentiful in the Pinery Provincial Park.  Through preservation of the Pinery’s existing oak savanna, The Ontario Butterfly Species at Risk Recovery Team hopes to reintroduce and ultimately establish a self-sustaining population of this endangered butterfly.  

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Phylum:  Arthropoda     Class:  Insecta     Order:  Lepidoptera     Family:  Hesperiidae

Species Status in Ontario:  on SARO “Endangered” list since 2014 

Habitat:
MODU populations will only occur where their host plant grows.  Their host plant(s) prefers a dry habitat with sparse vegetation.  In Ontario, this may be open barrens, sandy patches in woodlands, the rare ecosystems of Ontario - oak woodlands, pin woodlands, tallgrass prairies - and alvars.  Alvars are limestone areas with shallow dry soil (clay or sandy), having sparse vegetation of early successional grass, shrub and wildflower species.  Neither C. americanus nor C. herbaceous are tolerant of closed canopies.

Behaviour:
While some skippers are migratory, E. martialis is a non-migratory species that uses their habitat, and specifically their host plant for all stages of life.  Their flight is low to the ground in a fast, erratic pattern.  By comparison with other duskywings, MODU are considered sedentary and less mobile.  They are said to have limited dispersal ability.  

Larvae build silk-lined leaf-nests on their food plants.  Leaves are cut or folded or several are pulled together.  With nocturnal feeding habits, they venture out at night to feed on leaves, or shorten their trip by cutting leaf sections to take back to their shelter for consumption later.

“Nectaring” is the act of feeding from floral nectar sources.  Nectar is an essential adult food, rich in sugar.  Adult MODUs tend to prefer sites with partial shade, abundant nectar sources and ample larval food plant, C. americanus, supply.

During mating season, the males will gather and patrol on local hilltops to attract and compete for females.  Males can be seen “puddling” - sipping water from moist soil - in the company of other duskywing species.  The salt and essential minerals gathered from soil water are incorporated into the male’s sperm and passed onto the female and her eggs when mating.  These nutrients improve the viability of her eggs.

Life Cycle:
After mating occurs and the female has been fertilized, she will deposit her eggs on the leaves of a host, C. americanus or C. herbaceus, plant.  Her eggs are hemispherical, with fine sculpturing or marked with vertical ridges.  They begin pale green in colour, but quickly turn to pink.  

Larvae (caterpillars) hatch only days after egg-laying.  They are stout, sluggish, pale green, smooth or covered with fine bumps, short hairs or tubercles.  Their large heads are dark with small patches of red, orange or yellow.  The prothorax is narrow, giving the appearance of having a neck.  They are cylindrical in shape, sometimes tapered at both ends.  The last segments often divide into two “tails”.   At maturity, they can be 25 mm long.  The larva creates a day shelter for itself by stitching leaves together with silk.  At night, the caterpillar leaves the shelter to feed.  

A mature larva spins a cocoon no more than 1-2 cm beneath the leaf litter at the base of its food plant.  In the extreme part of southwestern Ontario, it will pupate (form a chrysalis) and emerge a few weeks later, unless the weather is unfavourable.  In this case, or if its habitat is further north, it will go into diapause (a state of dormancy) and overwinter.  

Exposure to early spring solar warmth encourages pupation. Emergence occurs mid-May to early-June, depending on northerly/southerly location within the range.  The chrysalis, or pupa, vary from dark green to brown.  Round and smooth, it has a squared off head, a noticeable tongue and a tail that comes to a tufted point.

Adults are on the wing by mid May to late June.  In extreme southwestern Ontario, the female may lay a second brood, to hatch early July and take flight mid-July to late August.

Threats:
The main threat to Mottled Duskywing is destruction of habitat, including habitat fragmentation, due to various forms of human development.  These include changes by design, such as the planting of jack pine; pesticide use, including spraying for gypsy moth control; flooding; and, introduction of invasive species, such as Dog Strangling Vine.  All being direct threats to MODU’s host plant, C. americanus (New Jersey Tea), they present real and present dangers to this butterfly species.

Also threatening MODU’s host plant are natural habitat changes resulting from natural succession, canopy closure and deer browsing.  Disturbance such as fire, both natural and controlled burns, can cause direct mortality of individual butterflies; however, this kind of disturbance will also serve to maintain suitable habitat conditions.  The woody plants get burned off, clearing the way and open the canopy for fire tolerant New Jersey Tea to flourish.

Presently, there are only small, scattered populations of Erynnis martialis (Mottled Duskywing) in Ontario.  Similar duskywings, Karner Blue, Frosted Elfin and Eastern Persium are mostly gone from Ontario and Canada at large.  As we speak, The Ontario Butterfly Species at Risk Recovery Team is working to reintroduce and establish a self-sustaining population of Mottled Duskywing butterfly in the oak savanna habitat of Pinery Provincial Park (on the southern shore of Lake Huron). 

Put simply, “Biodiversity is the shortened form of two words "biological" and "diversity". It refers to all the variety of life that can be found on Earth (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as to the communities that they form and the habitats in which they live.” - from “Introduction to Biodiversity.”  PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency

Biodiversity is responsible for clean air and water, and the many other resources that support our survival.  Species at risk recovery is a key component in protecting biodiversity.

The Endangered Species Act, 2007 (ESA) is the Government of Ontario’s legislative commitment to protection and recovery of species at risk and their habitats.  A species is automatically protected against harm and harassment, and the habitat(s) it depends upon is protected from damage and destruction at the point in time when a species is listed under the ESA as extirpated, endangered or threatened.  It is then the responsibility of The Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry to ensure that a recovery strategy is prepared for any species listed as endangered or threatened.  

A science-based recovery strategy advising on what is necessary to achieve recovery must be provided to the government within one year for endangered, and two years for threatened species.  The government then responds with a statement, the government’s policy response to the scientific advice offered.  This statement must take into account factors beyond the scientific advice, including:  input from stakeholders, other jurisdictions, Aboriginal communities and members of the public.  Together, these various elements reflect the best available traditional, local and scientific knowledge.  

With regard to implementation, the ESA allows the Ministry to determine what actions are feasible in terms of social and economic factors.

Here is an example:  

Erynnis martialis (Mottled Duskywing) butterfly

Endangered, meaning  “the species lives in the wild in Ontario but is facing imminent extinction or extirpation.” - Species at Risk in Ontario (SARA) list

Added to the SARO list on June 27, 2014.

​Ontario Recovery Strategy was developed during the year following the above date, and completed on 25 June 2015.  

The Government of Ontario then publishes the summary, “Mottled Duskywing Recovery Strategy Executive Summary” 

Within 9 months the Government must follow this up with a response statement.  In the case of Mottled Duskywing, the statement was published 23 March 2016.  

Since resources, understanding and know-how are not in the hands of one entity, while the Government of Ontario sets goals for recovery, the actual process is shared with various entities.  In other words, the Government of Ontario leads some aspects of recovery, while supporting others.  Supported aspects include:

• habitat management and stewardship, working with local landowners / community partners in managing habitat through threat mitigation and increased public awareness 
• increase knowledge of the species’ abundance, distribution and site-specific threats through inventory and monitoring 
• continue research into habitat requirements, life processes and population dynamics

​

​​Presently, The Ontario Butterfly Species at Risk Recovery Team is working to reintroduce and establish a self-sustaining population of Mottled Duskywing butterfly in the oak savanna habitat of Pinery Provincial Park (on the southern shore of Lake Huron).


​You may be asking, in the case of Mottled Duskywing, how can Ontario citizens be good stewards?  Here are some suggestions:

• if you are a private landowner you may be eligible for stewardship programs that support the protection and recovery of species at risk and their habitats.
• if you are a farmer, Canada-Ontario Farm Stewardship Program is available to farmers registered under the Canada-Ontario Environmental Farm Plan.  This plan encourages greater protection and conservation of habitat for species at risk.
• if you are a hiker or biker, follow the posted directives of the trail, as they are designed to protect the biodiversity of sensitive landscapes.  In the case of alvars, rare is the word!  Alvars only exist only in the Great Lakes region of North America and northern Europe.  The predominance of limestone and lack of soil limits the plants that can grow in this habitat.  Those that do take root and flourish are often rare species and hosts to rare insects.   
• if you are a seasoned or wanna-be gardener, the rare Mottled Duskywing, along with many other butterflies are pollinating insects.  With pollinator populations declining around the world, help them along by creating a pollinator garden.  You may also like to look into Seeds of Diversity. 

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Since the fall of 2018 I have been working through Gretchen Halpert's Scientific Illustration Distance Program (SIDP).  The program consists of four 10-week sessions that take students on a creative journey - from the basics in graphite, pen & ink and watercolour, gradually gaining a sense of the professional workflow, with every-increasing application of profession scientific illustration practices.  Assignments during the first three sessions are based on instruction delivered via an on-line classroom. Constructive critiques are offered following each assignment.  For the final session students branch out individually with directions to design their own independent project or find an organization that already has, or is willing to support, ​a scientific illustration internship.  I chose to do an internship with a local land conservation organization, and upon completion, on June 22, 2020, I received my certification. 

I am pleased to have made the following illustrative contributions to two research initiatives during my SIDP Internship with rare Charitable Research Reserve.  First, here is what rare has to say about the work they do: 

The Ontario Butterfly Species at Risk Recovery Team works on provincial and national efforts to protect and restore Ontario's butterfly species at risk.  Presently, there are only small, scattered populations of Erynnis martialis (Mottled Duskywing) in Ontario.  Once plentiful in Pinery Provincial Park, through preservation of the Pinery’s existing oak savanna, the OBSARRT hopes to reintroduce and ultimately establish a self-sustaining population of endangered butterfly, E. martialis, to this oak savanna habitat, on the southern shore of Lake Huron.

The catalogue of images is steadily growing, so please check in frequently. 
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Phylum:  Arthropoda     Class:  Insecta     Order:  Hymenoptera     Family:  Formicidae

Species Status in Ontario:  genus Aphaenogaster worker ants are abundant 
in North American hardwood forests 

Family, Formicidae:
This is the highly social insect family we know as ants.  They evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors during the Cretaceous period and became more diverse after the proliferation of flowering plants.  They are distinguished by “elbow” antennae and the distinct node-like structure forming their slender waist. 

Ants live in colonies that range significantly in size depending on the species.  The larger colonies have a caste structure, consisting of sterile, wingless worker and soldier females, a much smaller number of fertile “drone” males, and one or more fertile female “queens”.  Superorganism is a term used to describe an ant colony, as the ants appear to operate as a unified whole.

Apart from Antarctica and a few remote islands, family Formicidae has colonized every landmass on Earth.  It is believed that this family makes up 15-25% of the Earth’s terrestrial animal biomass.  Besides social organisation, their ability to modify habitats, tap resources and defend themselves accounts for their vast presence.  As a result of their long co-evolution, ants have developed various types of relationships with other species, including relationships termed mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic. 

Genus, Aphaenogaster:
Aphaenogaster is a large, diverse genus, found throughout the world, with exceptions being southern South America, southern Africa, Antarctica and a few remote, inhospitable islands.

I find the North American species elegant.  They have an elongate and slender habitus (general appearance), with a head that is usually longer than broad.  Their large, convex eyes are placed on the head at the middle.  The dorsal portion of the workers’ mesothorax (mesonotum) is elongate and depressed.  The first abdominal segment, fused with the thorax to form the mesosoma (propodeum), usually has a pair of spines or small teeth.  The antennal club, consisting of four segments, is poorly defined.

Description/Morphology:
Aphaenogaster picea is named for its dark red/brown coloration.  The ants you are most likely to see above ground, the workers, are 4-6 cm, while their queen is 7-8 cm.  This species is very similar to A. rudis, but can be easily distinguished by the antennae, ending in a 4-segmented club that is lighter in colour.  As well, A. picea workers have a lighter, some say “yellow” tipped, gaster (the bulbous posterior portion of the metasoma or abdomen).

Range: 
A. picea is an ant of northeastern North America, commonly found in eastern United States and eastern Canada.  It has also been found in some Se states and Mexico. 

Habitat:
This arboreal species is found in a wide range of forest habitats.  While she prefers nesting in downed wood and old stumps, as an opportunist the gyne (queen) will nest under bark, under objects on the ground, in soil, or in any cavity with a suitable range of temperature and adequate protection.  For this monogyne (having one queen) colony, leaf litter is an important element of its microhabitat. 

Behaviour/Life Cycle:  
A. picea are mostly diurnal, though they will also forage at night.  Omnivorous forages, their preferred diet is insects, including termites, fruit flies, crickets, meal worms, and wax worms.  Curiously, they refuse liquids, often covering up liquid sources.  

Hibernation is accomplished by means of anti-freeze in their blood.  The slow climate cool down activates this substance.  In the wild they can survive extreme cold.  

In terms of mating, their major flight is in August, after a light rain, though they have been known to fly before and after this summertime month. 

Fertilized females will overwinter.  In the spring, after egg-laying it takes 10-15 days for the larvae to form.  Another 15-20 days are needed for their pupal transformation.  They do not utilize a cocoon.  Pupae become workers in yet another 15-20 days.  The lengths of time are determined by temperature.

The forest benefits by the seed dispersal activity of this arboreal species.  Enticed by the nutrient-rich elaiosome encasement of the diaspore (seeds of some plants, contained within a food-body), the workers carry these seeds back to their nest.   This food source, rich in both lipids and oleic acid, is desirable for their developing larvae.  While eating away the elaiosomes, the larvae do not injure the seeds.  Once stripped, the seeds are discarded from the nest or cached in a midden underground.  Away from the parent plant, protected from predators, the seeds, cast-away into soil made rich by the lifestyle of the ants, grow into new plant colonies. 

Dispersive Mutualism:
In terms of ecology, mutualism, one of several different types of symbiotic relationships, refers to one in which both species benefit.  In traditional Indigenous sciences, such a relationship is seen as part of the gift-reciprocity networks and cycles.  “Dispersive” mutualism is a relationship in which one species receives food in return for the transport of the other species’ offspring.  In the case of bees and flowers, this would be “pollination”, nectar in exchange for pollen distribution.  In the case of A. picea ants and some plants, this would be “myrmecochory”, elaiosome (food bodies) as larval nutrition in exchange for seed dispersal.

Myrmecochorous plants produce diaspore, seeds encased in nutrient-rich elaiosome, in order to attract ants for the purpose of having their seeds dispersed.  From Ancient Greek, myrmecochory means, “circular dance”.  Trillium grandiflorum (Large-flowered Trillium) is one such plant who joins in this beautiful circular dance with genus, Aphaenogaster.

Other Associations:
This ant, A. picea, is a preferred prey of Plethodon cinereus (Eastern Red-backed Salamander), also common in Ontario’s mesic woodlands.

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